Gain control methods and systems in an amplifier assembly

ABSTRACT

A Variable Gain Amplifier (VGA) amplifies an input signal according to a gain, to produce an amplified signal. A detector module detects a power indicative of a power of the amplified signal. A comparator module compares the detected power to a high threshold, a low threshold and a target threshold intermediate the high and low thresholds. A controller module changes the gain of the VGA so as to drive the detected power in a direction toward the middle threshold when the comparator module indicates the detected power is not between the high and low thresholds.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. Non-Provisional applicationSer. No. 11/118,336, filed May 2, 2005, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,183,845,which is a continuation of U.S. Non-Provisional application Ser. No.10/822,729, filed Apr. 13, 2004, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,068,100, which is acontinuation of U.S. Non-Provisional application Ser. No. 10/353,939,filed Jan. 30, 2003, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,798,286, which claims benefitof U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/430,061, filed Dec. 2, 2002, allof which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety;

This application is related to U.S. Non-Provisional application Ser. No.10/353,940, filed Jan. 30, 2003, entitled “Amplifier Assembly IncludingVariable Gain Amplifier, Parallel Programmable Amplifiers, and AGC,”which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention relates generally to variable gain amplifier (VGA)assemblies and components thereof, gain control in such assemblies, andapplications of the same.

2. Related Art

VGA assemblies are known in the art. What is needed is a more linear,lower noise, less costly amplifier assembly for providing variableamplifier gain in a variety of applications, such as those includingmultiple tuners for cable television and data signal applications.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Embodiments of the present invention are directed to an amplifierassembly and components/modules used therein, gain control in theamplifier assembly, and associated methods. An embodiment of the presentinvention is directed to an Automatic Gain Control (AGC) system of theamplifier assembly, comprising: a Variable Gain Amplifier (VGA)configured to amplify an input signal according to a gain, to produce anamplified signal; a detector configured to detect a power indicative ofa power of the amplified signal; a comparator module configured tocompare the detected power to a high threshold, a low threshold and atarget threshold between the high and low thresholds; and a controllermodule configured to change the gain of the VGA so as to drive thedetected power in a direction toward the middle threshold when thecomparator module indicates the detected power is not between the highand low thresholds.

Other embodiments of the present invention are apparent from the ensuingdescription.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS/FIGURES

In the drawings, like reference numbers indicate identical orfunctionally similar elements.

FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an example VGA assembly for use in a tuner.

FIG. 2 is a block diagram of an example arrangement of the VGA assemblyof FIG. 1.

FIG. 3 is a block diagram of an example arrangement of a VGA, includingan array of parallel gain stages, for use in the VGA assembly of FIG. 2.

FIG. 4 is a block diagram of an example arrangement of an attenuatedgain stage of the VGA of FIG. 3.

FIG. 4A is a block diagram of another example arrangement of a portionof an attenuated gain stage of the VGA of FIG. 2.

FIG. 4B is a block diagram of an arrangement of multiple attenuated gainstages, which is based on the gain stage arrangement of FIG. 4A.

FIG. 4C is a block diagram of another example arrangement of the VGA ofFIG. 2, using the attenuated gain stage arrangements of FIGS. 4A and 4B,and including differential components.

FIG. 5 is a block diagram of still another example arrangement of theVGA of FIG. 2, including single-ended components.

FIG. 6 is a block diagram of another example arrangement of anattenuated gain stage.

FIG. 7 is a circuit diagram of an example differential amplifier used ina differential gain stage of the VGA of FIG. 2.

FIG. 8 is a gain response curve or transfer function for a gain stage ofthe VGA of FIG. 2.

FIG. 9 is an illustration of an exemplary smooth and continuousramp-shaped gain change (increase) over time for a gain stage of the VGAof FIG. 2.

FIG. 10 is an illustration of an exemplary smooth and continuousramp-shaped gain change (decrease) over time for a gain stage of the VGAof FIG. 2.

FIG. 10A is an illustrative example of how the aggregate gain of the VGAof FIG. 2 may be changed in steps in the present invention.

FIG. 10B is an example plot of an AGC power control signal versus timefor the amplifier assembly of FIG. 2, corresponding to an examplereceive signal scenario.

FIG. 11 is a block diagram expanding on a controller module and atri-level AGC window comparator of the amplifier assembly of FIG. 2,according to an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 12 is a block diagram of an example switch within a decoder andswitch matrix of the amplifier assembly of FIG. 2.

FIG. 13 is a block diagram of an example arrangement of a power detectorof the amplifier assembly of FIG. 2.

FIG. 14 is a circuit diagram of an example arrangement of the tri-levelAGC window comparator of the amplifier assembly of FIG. 2.

FIG. 15 is a circuit diagram of an example arrangement of a rampgenerator portion of a signal generator of the amplifier assembly ofFIG. 2.

FIG. 16 is a circuit diagram of an example arrangement of a referencesignal generator portion, and an associated ramp window comparator, ofthe signal generator of the amplifier assembly of FIG. 2.

FIG. 16A is a circuit/block diagram of an example process monitor of theamplifier assembly of FIG. 1.

FIG. 16B is a circuit diagram of an example sense circuit module of theprocessor monitor of FIG. 16B.

FIG. 17 is a flowchart of an example method of controlling gain that maybe performed in the amplifier assembly of FIG. 2.

FIG. 18 is a flow chart expanding on an initial gain setting step of themethod of FIG. 17, according to an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 19 is a flow chart expanding on a gain change step of the method ofFIG. 17, according to an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 20 is a flow chart of a low-level example method expanding on thegain change step of the method of FIG. 17, which focuses on operationsperformed by elements of a controller module of the amplifier assemblyof FIG. 2 during the gain change.

FIG. 21 is a flow chart of another example method of controlling VGAgain performed in the amplifier assembly of FIG. 2.

FIG. 22 is an example system in which the amplifier assembly of FIG. 1may be used.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Glossary

AGC—automatic gain control.

CATV—Community Antenna Television.

CI—Control Interface.

CMOS—Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor.

FET—Field Effect Transistor.

IC—Integrated Circuit.

VGA—Variable Gain Amplifier.

QAM: Quadrature Amplitude Modulated.

QPSK: Quadrature Phase Shift Keyed.

Television (TV) Standards:

-   -   NTSC—National Television System Committee.    -   PAL—Phase Alternating Line.    -   SECAM—Sequential Color with Memory (French).        I. Overview

In a Community Antenna Television (CATV) system (also referred to ascable TV), a plurality of signals are frequency division multiplexedonto one or more coaxial cables. The CATV system has a downstream bandor aggregate signal (headend-to-user) and an upstream band or aggregatesignal (user-to-headend). In the downstream band, there can beapproximately 135 channels having frequencies that range from 50 MHz to860 MHz. The individual downstream channels represent differenttelevision signals that can be a mixture of analog television signals ordigital signals. The analog television signals are preferably NTSC orPAL compliant television signals. The digital television signals carrydigital video or cable modem data (e.g. internet traffic), and aretypically modulated using 64 QAM or 256 QAM. Other outputs include abuffered version of an input (bypass function) and out-of-band (OOB)control signals.

While the amplitude of each signal varies as a function of theinformation being transmitted on that channel, the amplitude of thecombined signal on the cable will vary not only as a function of theamplitude of each of the individual signals, but also as a function ofthe phase and amplitude relationship of each channel with respect to theothers. Thus, the overall amplitude of the signal will be time varyingas the phase and amplitude of each of the individual signals line up. Asan example, an amplifier used in a tuner that receives the downstreamsignal has to have good distortion performance when 135 channels, eachat 0 Decibel-milliVolts (dBmV), are fed to the amplifier input. When theinput level is increased to +15 dBmV on each channel, the amplifier mustattenuate the input level back down to the same output level as in thecase when all channels were at 0 dBmV, while maintaining good distortionperformance.

FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an exemplary amplifier assembly 102 for usein a tuner for CATV, for example. Amplifier assembly 102 includes a VGAamplifier module 104, AGC control circuitry or module 106 forcontrolling a gain of the VGA amplifier module, a process monitor 108.Amplifier assembly 102 also includes a control interface (CI) 109 forcontrolling and monitoring amplifier module 104, AGC module 106, andprocess monitor 108, over a control bus 110. An external controller 112controls and receives status information from amplifier assembly 102,over an external control bus 114 coupled to CI 109. External control bus114 may be a digital control bus including serial data lines and a clockline, for example. CI 109 may be an analog or digital controller, andcontrol bus 110 may be an analog or digital control bus.

Amplifier module 104 receives a signal 114 including downstream channelsspanning 54-860 MHz, for example. Signal 114 may include TV channelsformatted according to NTSC, PAL, or SECAM standards, for example.Signal 114 may also include channels carrying digital data. Amplifiermodule 104 amplifies receive signal 114 in accordance with a gain of theamplifier module and divides or power-splits the resulting amplifiedreceive signal, to produce a plurality of individual, separate amplifiedreceive signals 118(1)-118(n). Amplifier assembly 102 produces signals118(1)-118(n) in parallel with one another. Each signal 118(i)represents an amplified version of receive signal 114. Each of amplifiedsignals 118 is associated with its own gain, and thus, may have adifferent power level than the other of amplified signals 118. Theinterchangeable terms “gain” and “gain value” as used herein aregeneral, and are intended to include positive, negative or zero gain.Thus, an amplifier having a gain may amplify a signal at a first powerlevel, to produce an amplified signal at a second power level. Thesecond power level may be greater than, less than, or equal to the firstpower level, depending on whether the gain is positive, negative, orzero, respectively.

In response to a power level of one of amplified signals 118 (e.g.,signal 118(2)), AGC module 106 generates one or more gain controlsignals 120 that collectively control the gain of amplifier module 104,and thus the power levels of output signals 118. As a power level ofreceive signal 114 varies, AGC module 106 adjusts the gain of amplifiermodule 104 so as to maintain the individual power levels of amplifiedsignals 118 at substantially constant respective power levels.

FIG. 2 is a block diagram of an example arrangement of amplifierassembly 102, expanding on FIG. 1. Amplifier assembly 102 includesvarious circuit elements constructed on an integrated circuit (IC)substrate or chip 202, depicted in dashed-line. Such on-chip circuitelements are depicted within the dashed-line 202. Amplifier assembly 102also includes various circuit elements external to IC substrate 202,depicted outside of the dashed-line 202.

Amplifier module 104 includes a first stage amplifier 204 followed by aplurality of, for example, five, parallel second stage amplifiers 206for generating corresponding, separate parallel amplified signals 118.In an exemplary arrangement, first stage amplifier 204 is a VGAincluding an array of variable gain stages arranged in parallel witheach other, each having an individual gain controlled responsive to acorresponding one of gain control signals 120.

In the arrangement of FIG. 2, VGA 204 is a differential amplifier,including differential inputs and differential outputs. A pair ofdifferential signal lines 208 carry receive signal 114 to thedifferential inputs of VGA 204. Amplifier assembly 102 includes aresistor 204 a coupled between input lines 208, external to IC chip 202.Together, resistor 204 a and input attenuation of VGA 204 (not shown inFIG. 2, but discussed below), set an input impedance of amplifierassembly 102. VGA 204 includes one or more gain control inputs 205 forreceiving corresponding gain control signals 120. In an arrangement,gain control signals 120 include bias or control currents. In analternative arrangement, gain control signals include bias or controlvoltages.

VGA 204 amplifies receive signal 114 according to a gain of the VGA setby gain control signals 120, and produces an intermediate amplifiedreceive signal 210. A pair of differential signal lines 212, coupledbetween the differential output of VGA 204 and respective differentialinputs of each of second stage amplifiers 206, carry amplified signal210 to the second stage amplifiers. Thus, each of parallel amplifiers206 is fed with signal energy from a common input, e.g., the output ofVGA 204/lines 212. Also, a termination circuit or output load 207(described below in connection with FIG. 7) couples output lines 212 toa power supply rail of amplifier assembly 102.

Each of second stage amplifiers 206 has a gain that is programmablethrough CI 109. Thus, each of second stage amplifiers 206 is also a VGA.Programmable gain registers 214, coupled to CI 109 and respective gaincontrol inputs of second stage amplifiers 206, hold respective gainvalues that program the gains of the corresponding amplifiers 206. Eachamplifier 206(i) further amplifies amplified receive signal 210 inaccordance with its respective gain set by the programmable gain incorresponding gain register 214(i), to produce respective amplifiedsignal 118(i). As depicted in FIG. 2, each amplifier 118(i) is adifferential amplifier, and each amplified signal 118(i) is adifferential signal. Termination circuits or output loads207′(1)-207′(n) (where each of the loads 207′ is similar to load 207)couple respective outputs of amplifiers 206(1)-206(n) to a power supplyrail of amplifier assembly 102. The output of each second stageamplifiers 206(i) is configured for driving its own load, for example,an individual tuner coupled to the output. Thus, amplifier assembly 102is configured to drive multiple loads (such as tuners) in parallel.

In an arrangement, a first sub-plurality of second stage amplifiers 206(for example, outside amplifiers 206(1) and 206(n)) have a common gain,that is, a programmed first gain, and a second sub-plurality of secondstage amplifiers 206 (for example, inner amplifiers 206(2) through206(n-1)) have a common second gain, that is, a programmed second gain.In this arrangement, the second gain is less than the first gain. Forexample, a ratio of the programmed first gain to the program second gainmay be in a range of ratios of between 1:1 to 2:1.

Amplifier assembly 102 also includes AGC control circuitry or module 106coupled between the output of second stage amplifier 206(2) and gaincontrol inputs 205 of VGA 204. In an alternative arrangement, ACG module106 is coupled between the output of VGA 204 (e.g., to lines 212) andgain control inputs 205. AGC control circuitry 106 includes, in series,a power detector 216, a comparator module 218, and an AGC controllermodule 220.

Power detector 216 detects a power level of output signal 206(2), andprovides a detected power indicator 230, that is, a power level signal230, to comparator module 218. Power detector 216 detects the combinedpower of all of the frequency channels in output signal 206(2) (whichare the frequency channels in input signal 114). Therefore, power levelsignal 230 is representative of this combined power. Comparator module218 includes a tri-level AGC window comparator 222, an upper thresholdregister 224, a lower threshold register 226, and a middle or targetthreshold register 228. Threshold registers 224, 226 and 228 providerespective upper (high), lower (low) and target power thresholds 224 a,226 a and 228 a to respective comparison inputs of comparator 222.Thresholds 224 a-228 a may be programmed through CI 109. Targetthreshold 228 a may be half-way between thresholds 224 a and 226 a,closer to threshold 226 a, or closer to threshold 224 a, as desired.

Comparator 222 receives power level signal 230 at a comparison input ofthe comparator. Comparator 222 compares power level signal 230 tothresholds 224 a, 226 a and 228 a, to produce a comparison result signal232. Comparison result signal 232 indicates where the detected power ofsignal 118(2) (that is, power level signal 230) is in relation tothresholds 224 a-228 a. Together, upper threshold 224 a and lowerthreshold 226 a define an AGC window.

Controller module 220 includes a controller 233 that receives comparisonresult signal 232 and a clock 234 generated by a clock generator 236.Controller 233 generates a set of control signals 238 responsive tocomparison result 232, and provides the control signals to a decoder andswitch matrix 240 (also referred to as switch matrix 240). A signalgenerator 242, including an off-chip capacitor 244, generates a set oframp and reference signals 246, and provides the ramp and referencesignals to decoder and switch matrix 240. Decoder and switch matrix 240generates gain control signals 120 in response to signals 246 andcontrol signals 238.

CI 109 can assert control over, and collect status information from,controller module 220, through control interface registers 249. Forexample, CI 109 can command clock generator 236 to either start or stopgenerating clock 234. CI 109 can access status information in controller233 indicative of a present gain setting of VGA 204. CI 109 can commandcontroller 233 to set the gain of VGA 204 to any desired gain value. Innormal AGC operation, controller module 220 adjusts the gain of VGA 204responsive to comparison result 232. However, CI 109 can commandcontroller 233 to hold the gain of VGA 204 fixed at a desired gainvalue, that is, controller 233 can be commanded to be non-responsive tocomparison result signal 232. Essentially, this disables AGC operationin amplifier assembly 102. Since the gains of VGA 204 and second-stageparallel amplifiers 206 may be controlled through CI 109, an alternativearrangement of the amplifier assembly omits AGC module 106. In such anarrangement, the gain of the VGA module is controlled exclusively by CI109.

In yet another mode of gain control operation, the output of powerdetector 216 can be turned off, and an external control voltage 250 canbe substituted for the output of power detector 216. In other words,external control voltage 250 replaces signal 230.

In an arrangement, clock generator 236 is a relaxation oscillator basedon alternately charging an on-chip capacitor (not shown in FIG. 2) witha reference current Iref and discharging the capacitor with a current2Iref. This action produces a 50% duty-cycle triangle wave on a terminalof the capacitor. The control signals for the charge/discharge actionare actually the clock output square wave.

The frequency of clock 234 can be tuned by changing the charge/dischargecurrent to the capacitor. An example frequency tuning range isapproximately 1.25 kHz to 80 kHz. An additional frequency tuning factorof 2× can be obtained by either reducing the on-chip capacitor in half,or making the capacitor 2× larger.

Oscillator 236 also includes a synchronous reset capability which doesnot produce glitches (i.e., undesired narrow pulse width outputs) onclock 234 when a RESET signal from CI 109 is asserted (e.g., set to alogic “1”). Likewise, when the RESET signal is set to logic “0,” noglitch occurs. This is performed by logic circuitry within oscillator236. This no-glitch action insures that the last-held-state ofcontroller 233, when controller 233 is implemented as a stage machine,is maintained at reset and seamlessly restarted when reset is finished.The purpose of this feature is to allow for clock-free operation of thestate machine (e.g., controller 233), except when checking for gaincorrections via an external controller (e.g., controller 112). This wasdone in case relaxation oscillator 236 produces spurious signals on itsoutput 234.

Amplifier assembly 102 also includes process monitor 108. In response tocommands issued over CI bus 110, process monitor 108 selectively couplesvarious ones of its process monitor outputs to the CI bus 110.

Amplifier assembly 102 also includes a bandgap voltage reference circuit260. The bandgap voltage reference circuit 260 produces multiplevoltages, including a first fixed voltage that does not vary withtemperature, power supply voltage VDD or process variations. An examplefixed voltage is approximately 1.2 Volts (V). Circuit 260 also producesa second voltage that increases proportional to absolute temperature(PTAT), but does not change with VDD or process variations.

Circuit 260 may produce bias currents based on the fixed and PTATvoltages. For example, the fixed voltage is applied across variousresistors (both on- and off-chip 202) to create correspondingly fixedbias currents used by various sub-circuits within the IC chip. Ingeneral, the bias currents on the order of 200 μA are sent to eachsub-circuit. Each sub-circuit then mirrors the currents, sometimes atfixed ratios (either up or down) to get the current(s) needed in eachsub-circuit.

Likewise, the PTAT voltage is applied across various resistors (both on-and off-chip 202) to create PTAT bias currents used by varioussub-circuits within the chip. The PTAT currents would increase attemperature increases.

A substantial portion of the circuits of amplifier assembly 102 areconstructed on IC chip 202. However, input load resistor 204 a,capacitor 244, and output load circuit 207 are external to IC chip 202.A general advantage of using such external or off-chip components isthat relatively cheaper off-chip components have relatively moreaccurate parameter values (e.g., resistance, capacitance, inductance,and so on) as compared to corresponding internal or on-chip components.For example, low-cost off-chip components typically have 5% tolerancesfor resistors and 10% tolerances for capacitors and inductors. Eventighter tolerances can be achieved for slightly more expensive off-chipcomponents.

In alternative arrangements of the present invention, input resistor 204a is on-chip. In yet another arrangement, output load circuit 207 ison-chip. Similarly, capacitor 244 may be provided on-chip. The parameteraccuracy of the on-chip components in such arrangements may be achievedin a variety of ways. For example, switched resistor banks withcalibration routines may be used to select a best-valued on-chipresistor among multiple resistors, and so on. In the case of an on-chipversion of external capacitor 244, which is a large capacitancecapacitor, capacitor multipliers may be used.

In another alternative arrangement of amplifier assembly 102, parallelsecond-stage amplifiers 206 are omitted whereby the output of VGA 204drives subsequent processing stages.

II. VGA

FIG. 3 is a block diagram of an example arrangement 300 of VGA 204. Inthe example arrangement depicted in FIG. 3, VGA 204 includes a pluralityof individual gain stages 302 arranged in parallel with each other. Eachgain stage 302(i) receives a corresponding gain control signal 120(i).Each gain stage 302(i) includes a variable gain amplifier 304(i) havinga gain controlled responsive to the corresponding gain control signal120(i). In the example arrangement of FIG. 3, VGA 204 includes an arrayof seventy (70) variable gain stages 302, however, any number of gainstages from 1-to-n may be used. If only one gain stage is used, then AGCmodule 106 generates only one corresponding gain control signal 120(i).

VGA 204 includes an input node 310 coupled to differential signal lines208. Gain stages 302 have their respective inputs 312 coupled to inputnode 310. Similarly, their respective outputs 314 are coupled to anoutput summing node 316 that combines together the respective gain stageoutputs. Summing node 316 may be a wire-OR, for example, or any othercircuit that combines together the gain stage outputs. Summing node 316may include multiple sub-combining nodes for combining subsets of theoutputs of gain stages 302. In an arrangement, input node 310, each ofthe inputs 312 and outputs 314, each gain stage 302 (i), and summingnode 316 are differential. However, these elements are depicted as beingsingle-ended in FIG. 3. In VGA 204, gain stages 302 are considered to bearranged in parallel for at least the reason that their respectiveinputs are coupled to common input node 310, and thus, all of the gainstages are fed, with signal energy, from the common input node.Furthermore, the respective outputs of the gain stages are combinedtogether at summing node 316.

In operation, each gain stage 302(i) amplifies receive signal 114 inaccordance with its individual gain (g(i)) set by corresponding gaincontrol signal 120(i) to produce a corresponding amplified receivesignal presented at its output 314(i). Summing node 316 combinestogether all of these individual amplified signals to produce compositeor aggregate amplified signal 210. Together, the array of parallel gainstages 302 establishes an aggregate gain of VGA 204 that is equal to asum of all of the individual gains of gain stages 302. The aggregategain is controlled in accordance with gain control signals 120.

In the arrangement depicted in FIG. 3, VGA 204 includes a first subset316 of non-attenuated gain stages, including gain stages 302(1)-302(20).First subset gain stages 316 have substantially equal respective maximumgains. Amplifier array 204 also includes a second subset 320 ofattenuated gain stages, including gain stages 302(21)-302(70). In anexample arrangement, second subset gain stages 320 have progressivelydecreasing maximum gains in the direction 302(21)-302(70). In anotherexample arrangement, VGA 204 includes a third subset ofconstant-attenuated gain stages (not sown in FIG. 3) added to the bottomof the structure depicted in FIG. 3. All of the third subset of gainstages have fixed, constant attenuation.

FIG. 4 is a block diagram of an example arrangement of an attenuatedgain stage in the second subset or group of attenuated gains stages 320.Attenuated gain stage 302(i) includes an attenuator 402(i) followed byamplifier 304(i). Attenuator 402(i) may provide fixed or, alternatively,programmable attenuation.

FIG. 4A is a block diagram of another example arrangement of anattenuated gain stage. In the arrangement of FIG. 4A, a tap-point orjunction 404(i) between attenuator 402′(i) and amplifier 304(i) ofattenuated gain stage 302(i) is coupled to a next attenuated gain stage302(i+1), and so on. The attenuator reference numeral 402′ includes theprime suffix (′) to indicate that the attenuator is shared between gainstages. The use of the attenuated gain stage of FIG. 4A in VGA 204 leadsto a another parallel arrangement of attenuated gain stages, as depictedin FIG. 4B.

FIG. 4B is a block diagram of such a parallel arrangement 410 ofattenuated gain stages. In arrangement 410, the attenuated gain stagesare cascaded in parallel with each other such that the attenuated gainstages share attenuators. Arrangement 410 includes an attenuation ladder412 coupled between input node 310 (not shown in FIG. 4B) and the inputsof the amplifiers of the attenuated gain stages. Attenuation ladder 412includes a string of series connected attenuators 402′. Successiveamplifiers 304(i), 304(i+1), and so on, have their respective inputs fedfrom corresponding successive taps 404(i), 404(i+1), and so on, ofattenuation ladder 412. That is, each attenuator 402′(i) feeds both theinput to amplifier 304(i) and also the input to attenuator 402′(i+1) ofnext gain stage 302(i+1), and so on. Thus, the successive taps areassociated with increasing attenuation. In this arrangement, attenuatedgain stage 302(i+1) includes attenuator 402′(i), attenuator 402′(i+1),and amplifier 304(i+1) connected in series with one another. Similarly,attenuated gain stage 302(i+2) includes attenuator 402′(i), attenuator402′(i+1), attenuator 402′(i+2), and amplifier 304(i+2) connected inseries with each other, and so on.

FIG. 4C is a block diagram of a differential arrangement 420 of VGA 204,using the attenuation ladder configuration described above in connectionwith FIG. 4B. In arrangement 420, input node 310, amplifiers 304,attenuators 402′, and output combining node 316 are all differential.Attenuation ladder 412 includes cascaded attenuators 402′. Eachattenuator 402′(i) includes resistors 422(i), 424(i) and 426(i)connected together as depicted in FIG. 4C. Together, external inputresistor 204 a and internal attenuators, 402′ (for example, attenuationladder 412) set or control the input impedance of amplifier assembly102, that is, the impedance seen looking into the amplifier assemblyalong input lines 208.

FIG. 5 is a block diagram of a single-ended (that is, non-differential)arrangement 500 of VGA 204. The amplifier arrangement of FIG. 5 includesa resistor ladder 502, including resistors 504, coupled between inputnode 310, specifically between node 506 and ground. Amplifiers304(21)-304(70) in the attenuated gain stages have their respectiveinputs tied to corresponding successive taps of resistor ladder 502. Inan alternative arrangement, the individual taps of resistor ladder 502are coupled to outputs of amplifiers 320, instead of to the inputs ofthe amplifiers.

FIG. 6 is a block diagram of another example arrangement of attenuatedgain stage 302(i). As depicted in FIG. 6, attenuated gain stage 302(i)includes amplifier 304(i) followed by attenuator 402(i).

In still another arrangement of VGA 204, attenuators are omitted, sothat the parallel attenuated gain stages are simply amplifiers (e.g.,FETs) sized smaller than the amplifiers of the parallel non-attenuatedgain stages. Since the gain of an amplifier is proportional to its size,the smaller amplifiers provide less gain. The attenuated gain stageamplifiers have progressively decreasing sizes, and therefore,progressively decreasing maximum gains.

In each of the arrangements of VGA 204 depicted in FIGS. 3, 4B, 4C and5, all of the gain stages are considered to be arranged in parallel witheach other for at least the reason that they are fed from a common inputnode. Also, their individual outputs are combined together to produce anaggregate output, e.g., amplified signal 210.

In still another arrangement of the VGA, the attenuated gain stages maybe omitted. In such an arrangement, all of the parallel gain stages havesubstantially the same maximum gain.

FIG. 7 is a circuit diagram of an example differential gain stageamplifier 304(i) used in the present invention, for example, inamplifier array 204. As depicted in FIG. 7, a pair of differentiallyconfigured amplifier transistors 708 a and 708 b have their respectivegate terminals connected to complimentary differential nodes of input312(i). The drains of transistors 708 a and 708 b are coupled torespective complimentary sides of output 314(i). Termination circuit 207(also referred to as an output load circuit, and mentioned above inconnection with FIG. 2) couples the drains of transistors 708 a and 708b (and sources of corresponding differential transistors in all of theother amplifiers 304) to a power supply rail P_(s), at power supplyvoltage VDD, for example. Specifically, in termination circuit 207, thedrain of transistor 708 a is connected to power supply rail P_(s)through series connected resistor 709 a and inductor 710 a, and aferrite bead 711 a connected in parallel with the series resistor andinductor. Ferrite bead 711 a has the effect of a large value inductor inparallel with a large resistor. Also, the drain of transistor 708 b issimilarly coupled to rail P_(s) through resistor 709 b, inductor 710 b,and ferrite bead 711 b.

The respective source-drain paths of transistors 708 a and 708 b areconnected together and to a current mirror 712, at a common terminal713. Current mirror 712 includes a diode configured transistor 714coupled to a gain control input terminal 715 (part of gain inputs 205)of amplifier 304(i), and also to a gate of a transistor 716, which hasits source-drain path connected between terminal 713 and ground. Thus,transistor 716 operates as the tail current transistor, and thus as acurrent source, for differential transistors 708. In operation, gaincontrol signal 120(i), applied to current mirror 712, controls a current720 flowing through the source-drain path of tail transistor 716. Thedifferential gain (g(i)) of amplifier 304(i) is controlled responsive toa magnitude of current 720. Thus, gain control signal 120(i) controlsthe gain (g(i)) of amplifier 304(i) and corresponding gain stage 302(i).In a typical arrangement, transistor 714 is a fraction, for example,one-eighth, the size of transistor 716. Thus, tail current 720 is amultiple, for example, eight times as large as, of control current120(i).

Referring again to FIG. 2, each second stage amplifier 206(i) mayinclude a differential amplifier that is similar to the amplifierdepicted in FIG. 7. As mentioned above, each second stage amplifier206(i) has its differential output coupled to respective terminationcircuit 207′(i). Also, each termination circuit 207′(i) is substantiallythe same as termination circuit 207 depicted in FIG. 7. However, thecomponent values used in each circuit 207′(i) may differ from thecomponent values used in the other circuits 207′, and from the componentvalues used in circuit 207.

FIG. 8 is a gain response curve for gain stage 302(i) and gain stage304(i). That is, FIG. 8 is a plot of gain stage gain (g(i)) versus theamplitude of corresponding gain control signal 120(i). In the presentinvention, gain control signal 120(i) is a current signal I(i). A givengain control signal 120(i) can set the gain of corresponding gain stage302(i) to a minimum gain (e.g., zero gain), a maximum respective gainfor that gain stage, or may cause the gain to change between its minimumvalue (e.g., zero) and the maximum value.

In the present invention, a gain change between the minimum and maximumgain levels for a given gain stage 302(i) is achieved according to (thatis, follows) a ramp function. That is, the gain changes (e.g., increasesor decreases) gradually over a time interval. In accordance with theramp function, the gain changes smoothly and continuously to avoidabrupt, discontinuous gain changes.

III. VGA Gain Change Operation—Overview

FIG. 9 is an illustration of such a smooth and continuous ramp-shapedgain change for a given gain stage 302(i). Specifically, FIG. 9 is anexample combined plot for (i) gain versus time, and correspondingly,(ii) gain control current I(i) versus time, for gain stage 302(i). Inthe plot of FIG. 9, gain stage 302(i) undergoes a gain change (i.e.,increase) from zero gain at time t₁ to its respective maximum gain attime t₂ in response to gain control current I(i). The gain change iscontinuous, that is, does not have discrete gain level steps or jumps.Also, the gain change is smooth. For example, the slope of the gainchange is continuous, and thus, does not exhibit discontinuities. Thegain may increase monotonically over time, such as linearly orexponentially. However, the gain change may also include non-monotonicportions, as long as they are smooth and continuous.

FIG. 10 is combined plot similar to FIG. 9, but for a decrease in gain.That is, FIG. 10 is an illustration of an exemplary smooth andcontinuous ramp-shaped gain change (decrease) over time for a gain stage302(i) of the VGA of FIG. 3.

FIG. 10A is an illustrative example of how the aggregate gain of firststage amplifier 204, e.g., amplifier array 204, may be changed in thepresent invention. In this illustrative example, the aggregate gain ofamplifier array 204 is decreased from a maximum aggregate gain to anintermediate aggregate gain. In FIG. 10A, each gain stage 302(i) isdepicted as a triangle. Dark-shaded triangles depict gain stages thatare fully ON, that is, operated at their respective maximum gains. Incontrast, triangles that are not shaded (that is, un-shaded triangles)depict gain stages that are fully OFF, that is, gain stages set to zerogain. Triangles filled with cross-hatches indicate gain stages that arein the process of having their respective gains changed, for example,either increased or decreased. Also, the process of changing aggregategain depicted in FIG. 10A proceeds from a first step “Step 1” depictedat the top of FIG. 10A, to a final step “Step 5” depicted at the bottomof the FIG. 10A.

Initially, in Step 1, the aggregate gain of amplifier array 204 is at amaximum aggregate gain level. In this state, all of non-attenuated gainstages 316 (i.e., gain stages 302(1)-302(20)) are set to or operating attheir respective maximum gains. Concurrently, all of the attenuated gainstages 320 (i.e., gain stages 302(21)-302(70)) are set to or operated atzero gain. Thus, in Step 1, gain stages 302(1) through 302(20) representfirst gain stages among the set of gain stages 302 that are set to theirrespective maximum gains. Similarly, gain stages 302(21) through 302(70)represent second gain stages of the gain stages 302 that are set to zerogain. Note here that the terms “first gain stages” and “second gainstages” refer to gain stages of VGA 204 only, and are not to be confusedwith “first stage amplifier 204” and “second stage amplifiers 206”discussed above in connection with FIG. 2, for example.

In Step 2, the gain of one of the first gain stages is decreased to zerogain according to a ramp function and the gain of one of the second gainstages is increased to its respective maximum gain according to the rampfunction. More specifically, the gain of gain stage 302(1) is decreasedto zero gain according to the ramp function and the gain of gain stage302(21) is increased to its respective maximum gain according to theramp function. The gain increase operation and the gain decreaseoperation may be performed concurrently, or alternatively, sequentially,that is one after the other.

After the gain changes of Step 2, the amplifier array 204 is configuredas depicted in Step 3 of FIG. 10A. Namely, gain stages 302(2) through302(21) are set to the respective maximum gains (and thus, represent anew set of first gain stages that are fully ON), while gain stages302(1) and 302(22)-302(70) are set to zero gain (and thus, represent anew set of second gain stages that are fully OFF).

In step 4, a further decrease in aggregate gain is achieved bydecreasing the gain of gain stage 302(2) to zero and increasing the gainof gain stage 302(22) to its respective maximum. These gain changes maybe performed concurrently or sequentially.

After the gain change of Step 4, amplifier array 204 is configured asdepicted in Step 5. The aggregate gain of amplifier array 204 in Step 5is less than the aggregate gain of amplifier array 204 in Step 1. Thisis because the sum of the maximum gains of the gain stages turned ON inStep 5 (i.e., gain stages 302(3)-302(22)) is less than the sum of themaximum gains of the gain stages turned ON in Step 1 (i.e., gain stages302(1)-302(20)). State otherwise, the sum of the maximum gains of gainstages 302(20)-302(21) is less than the sum of the maximum gains of gainstages 302(1)-302(2).

During the gain change process depicted in FIG. 10A, a contiguous set ofgain stages (e.g., twenty gain stages) are maintained in their fully ONstates. This contiguous set of ON gain stages is dynamic, and “slides”to the right across the full set of gain stages 302 depicted in FIG.10A. If the aggregate gain is further decreased to a point where thelower twenty attenuated gain stages, e.g., gain stages 302(51)-302(70)),are ON, then any further decrease in gain is achieved by sequentiallyturning OFF gain stage 302(51), then gain stage 302(52), and so on untilnone of the gain stages remain ON.

The process for increasing aggregate gain is essentially opposite fromthe process for decreasing aggregate gain. That is, higher numbered gainstages are sequentially turned fully ON, while lower numbered gainstages are sequentially turned fully OFF. In this case, the contiguousset of ON gain stages would slide to the left in FIG. 10A as theaggregate gain is increased.

FIG. 10B is an example plot of power control signal 230 versus timecorresponding to an example receive signal scenario. The example plot ofFIG. 10B serves as a useful illustration of the operation of VGA 204 andAGC module 106 with respect to power level signal 230 and thresholds 224a-228 a. An initial assumption is that at a time to, the power ofreceive signal 114, the aggregate gain of VGA 204, and the resultingpower of amplified receive signal 118(2) are such that power levelsignal 230 is between upper threshold 224 a and lower threshold 226 a,as depicted in FIG. 10B. It is also assumed that at periodic timeintervals t_(sample), controller module 220 (more specifically,controller 233) polls or “samples” comparison result signal 232.

Beginning at a time to, a slow increase in the power of receive signal114 causes a correspondingly slow increase in amplified signals 210 and118(2), and power detector level signal 230. AGC module 106 maintainsthe gain of amplifier 204 at a fixed level as power signal 230 rises.Eventually, power signal 230 rises to a level that is greater than upperthreshold 224 a, as indicated at 1050 in FIG. 10B. At a next sample time1052, controller module 220 polls comparison result signal 232, whichindicates the over-threshold condition at 1050. In response to thisover-threshold condition, controller module 220 generates gain controlsignals 120 to decrease the gain of VGA 204 continuously and smoothly,and correspondingly, power level signal 230, until the power levelsignal passes below target threshold 228 a.

At a sample time 1054, controller module 220 becomes informed that powerlevel signal 230 has crossed, e.g., dropped below, target threshold 228a. In response to this condition, controller module 220 generates gaincontrol signals 120 such that the gain of amplifier 204 remains fixed.That is, controller module 220 stops changing the gain amplifier 204because power signal 230 is at or near the target threshold 228 a.Controller module 220 will cause the gain of amplifier 204 to remain atthis fixed level until power level signal 230 again becomes either toohigh (i.e., above upper threshold 224 a) or too low (i.e., below lowerthreshold 226 a). Controller module 220 causes the gain of VGA 204 todecrease in a smooth and continuous manner between points 1050 and 1054.This results in the smooth and continuous downward slope of power levelsignal 230 depicted in FIG. 10B. In an example arrangement, controllermodule 220 causes the gain of VGA 204 to decrease according to theprocess discussed above in connection with FIG. 10A, that is, bysequentially turning OFF and ON gain stages in the amplifier array 204.The smooth and continuous gain change arrangement produces acorrespondingly smooth and continuous change in the power levels ofsignals 210 and 118.

The smooth and continuous change of power level signal 230 depicted inFIG. 10B includes small stair-steps or “wiggles” having sloped fallingedges. This results from smooth and continuous gain changes havingcorresponding stair-steps. These stair-steps result from pauses betweenincremental gain changes. For example, with reference again to FIG. 10A,gain is changed in the following manner. In Step 2, the gain of VGA 204is decreased an incremental amount, smoothly and continuously accordingto a ramp function. Then, in step 3, the gain of VGA 204 remainsconstant for a short period of time, that is, the gain remains level.Then, in Step 4, the gain of VGA 204 is decreased again an incrementalamount, smoothly and continuously according to a ramp function. Steps 2,3 and 4 repeat until power level signal 230 crosses target threshold 228a. The pause between successive incremental gain changes is discussedbelow in connection with FIG. 20.

IV. Controller Module, Detector Module, and Comparator

FIG. 11 is a block diagram expanding on controller module 220 andportions of comparator module 218, discussed above in connection withFIG. 2. Depicted in FIG. 11 are various low-level control signals notspecifically depicted in FIG. 2. As mentioned above, controller module220 generates gain control signals 120 responsive to comparison resultsignal 232. Controller 233 of controller module 220 provides acomparator control signal 1102 to comparator 222. At periodic timeintervals, controller 233 asserts comparator control signal 1102, thuscausing comparator 222 to produce comparison result signal 232 at thesetime intervals. Thereafter, controller 233 polls comparison resultsignal 232 to determine whether the gain of VGA 204 should be eitherchanged or maintained at a current or present level, as mentioned abovein connection with FIG. 10B. In the present invention, the periodic timeintervals (e.g., the time between successive polling operations) areprogrammable in duration, and should correspond to the rate at which thepower level of input signal 114 is expected to vary. Exemplary timeintervals may be between 1 millisecond and 1 minute, or even longer.More typical time intervals are in the range of 1-10 milliseconds. In anarrangement, controller 233 is a state-machine based controller clockedby clock 234. However, controller 233 may be any digital or analogcontroller.

Controller 233 also provides signal generator control signals 1104 tosignal generator 242, and receives a ramp status signal 1106 from thesignal generator. Signal generator 242 includes a ramp generator and areference signal generator (not shown separately in FIG. 11). The rampgenerator generates complimentary ramp signals 1108 (VRAM_P) and 1110(VRAM_N) on command, that is, in response to a ramp trigger signal incontrol signals 1104. The reference signal generator generates referencesignals 1112 (VREF_HI) and 1114 (VREF_LO) having complimentary fixedsignal values or amplitudes. For example, signal 1112 is a fixed highvoltage, while signal 1114 is a fixed relatively low voltage. Signals1108-1114 are provided to decoder and switch matrix 240.

Controller 233 also generates control signals 238 for controllingdecoder and switch matrix 240. Control signals 238 include an addresspointer 1116 indicating which of the gain stages 302 of VGA 204 shouldbe fully ON, that is, operating at their respective maximum gains, atany given time. Controller 233 also generates a set of digital controlsignals 1120 for controlling various functions of decoder and switchmatrix 240. For example, signals 1120 indicate whether the gain of VGA204 should be increased or decreased, and when such a change shouldoccur. Responsive to (i) control signals 1116 and 1120, (ii) rampsignals 1108 and 1110 when generated, and (iii) reference signals 1112and 1114, decoder and switch matrix 240 generates gain control signals120 as appropriate to either change (i.e. increase or decrease) ormaintain at a constant level the gain of VGA 204.

FIG. 12 is a block diagram of a representative portion 1200(i) ofdecoder and switch matrix 240. Portion 1200(i) is repeated withindecoder and switch matrix 240 for each of gain stages 302(i). Portion1200(i) includes a switch 1204(i) that receives signals 1108-1114 and acontrol signal 1206(i) derived responsive to control signals 238 (thatis, 1116 and 1120). In response to control signal 1206(i), switch1204(i) connects either (i) ramp signals 1108 and 1110, or (ii)reference signals 1112 and 1114, to the inputs of a differential driver1210(i). Differential drive 1210(i) generates gain control signal 120(i)responsive to its switched inputs.

More specifically, responsive to control signals 238, switch 1204(i) maybe placed in any one of four different configurations. In a firstconfiguration, switch 1204(i) connects reference signals 1112 and 1114to differential driver 1210(i) such that gain control signal 120(i) hasa static maximum amplitude that drives or sets the gain of correspondinggain stage 302(i) to a maximum value.

In a second configuration, switch 1204(i) connects reference signals1112 and 1114 to differential driver 1210(i), in a manner that isinverted with respect to the first configuration, such that gain controlsignal 120(i) has a static minimum amplitude that sets the gain ofcorresponding gain stage 302(i) to a minimum value.

In a third configuration, switch 1204(i) connects ramp signals 1108 and1110 to differential driver 1210(i) such that gain control signal 120(i)has an amplitude that follows a rising or increasing ramp function. Forexample, gain control signal 120(i) has an amplitude that increases overa time interval continuously and smoothly from the minimum amplitude tothe maximum amplitude. As a result, the gain of corresponding gain stage302(i) increases over the time interval continuously and smoothly fromthe minimum gain to the maximum gain for that gain stage.

In a fourth configuration, switch 1204(i) connects ramp signals 1108 and1110 to differential driver 1210(i), in a manner that is inverted withrespect to the third configuration, such that gain control signal 120(i)has an amplitude that follows a falling or decreasing ramp function. Forexample, gain control signal 120(i) has an amplitude that decreases overa time interval continuously and smoothly from the maximum amplitude tothe minimum amplitude. As a result, the gain of corresponding gain stage302(i) decreases over the time interval continuously and smoothly fromthe maximum gain to the minimum gain for that gain stage.

When the aggregate gain of amplifier array 204 is to be maintained at apresent value, first gain stages among gain stages 302 of VGA 204 areset to their respective maximum gains, while second gain stages amonggain stages 302 of VGA 204 are set to zero gain. This type ofarrangement was described above in connection with Steps 1, 3 and 5 ofFIG. 10A. To effect such an arrangement:

(i) first switches (among switches 1204) corresponding to the first gainstages of VGA 204 are set to their first configurations, so as toproduce corresponding gain control signals at their maximum fixedamplitudes; and

(ii) second switches (among switches 1204) corresponding to the secondgain stages of VGA 204 are set to their second configurations, so as toproduce corresponding gain control signals at their minimum fixedamplitudes.

When an aggregate gain change is required, the gain of one of the firstgain stages is decreased to zero and the gain of one of the secondamplifiers is increased to its maximum gain. This arrangement wasdescribed above in connection with Steps 2 and 4 of FIG. 10A. To achievethis, the switch corresponding to the one of the first gain stages (tobe turned OFF) is placed into its third configuration and the switchcorresponding to the one of the second amplifiers to be turned ON isplaced in its fourth configuration. Then, the amplitudes of the gaincontrol signals corresponding to these switches will ramp-up (e.g.,increase) and ramp-down (e.g., decrease) as a function of ramp signals1108 and 1110. In turn, the gains of the corresponding gain stages willramp-up and ramp-down.

FIG. 13 is a block diagram of an example arrangement of power detector216. Also depicted in FIG. 13 are exemplary signal waveformscorresponding to various portions of the power detector circuit. Powerdetector 216 includes an envelope detector 1302 followed by a low passfilter. The low pass filter includes a resistor (R) and a capacitor (C).Power detector 216 produces power level signal 230 at a voltage level(PDET) that is proportional to the amplitude or power level of amplifiedsignal 118(2).

FIG. 14 is a circuit diagram of an example arrangement of comparator222. Comparator 222 includes an upper threshold comparator 1402 forcomparing power level signal 230 to upper threshold 224 a, to produce anupper threshold result 232 a. Upper threshold result 232 a indicateswhether power level signal 230 is above or below upper threshold 224 a.Comparator 222 includes a target threshold comparator 1404 for comparingpower level signal 230 to target threshold 228 a, to produce a targetthreshold result 232 b. Result 232 b indicates whether power levelsignal 230 is above or below target threshold 228 a. Comparator 222 alsoincludes a lower threshold comparator 1406 for comparing power signal230 to lower threshold 226 a, to produce a lower threshold comparisonresult 232 c. Result 232 c indicates whether power level signal 230 isabove or below lower threshold 226 a. Comparison result signal 232comprises the set of comparison results 232 a-232 c.

FIG. 15 is a circuit diagram of an example arrangement of a rampgenerator 1500 of signal generator 242. Also depicted in FIG. 15 areexemplary signal waveforms corresponding to various nodes in the circuit1500 (for example, waveforms corresponding to signals 1108 (VRAMP_P),1110 (VRAM_N), and VRAMP). Ramp generator 1500 includes a first stage1502. First stage 1502 include a ramp generator switch 1504 coupled to apositive input of an operational transconductance amplifier (OTA)through a resistive voltage divider including resistors R10 and R11. Acurrent source I1 is connected between the positive input of OTA 1508and a power supply rail at voltage VDD. OTA 1508 is configured as avoltage follower amplifier having a current output. First stage 1502also includes capacitor 244 (C_(EXT)) connected between an outputterminal or node 1514 of OTA 1508 and ground. Switch 1504 is selectivelyopened or closed (i.e., either disconnected from ground or connected toground) responsive to a ramp trigger signal, which is one of controlsignals 1104 from controller 233.

Assume initially that switch 1504 is open. When controller 233 closesswitch 1504, a voltage VSW at the positive input of OTA 1508 becomes 0.5volts. Then, when controller 233 opens switch 1104, the voltage VSWinstantaneously jumps up to 1.5 volts. However, the output of OTA 1508,that is, the voltage VRAMP at node 1514 rises relatively slowly from 0.5volts because the current produced by OTA 1508 charges capacitor 244.OTA 1508 has a differential voltage input and a current output (or evena differential voltage output). OTA 1508 is advantageous in thisapplication because it produces a slow, smooth and continuous, linearvoltage change at its output due to the large capacitance of capacitor244. When controller 233 opens switch 1504, the voltage VSWinstantaneously drops to 0.5 volts. However, the voltage VRAMP at node1514 drops slowly from 1.5 volts down to 0.5 volts because of adischarge effect caused by capacitor 244. Any circuit that produces sucha step voltage at the OTA input can be used in the present invention.

Ramp generator 1500 includes a second stage 1520 coupled to output node1514. Second stage 1520 includes an optional first voltage followeramplifier 1522 for generating signal 1108 (VRAMP_P) and a secondamplifier 1524 for generating signal 1110 (VRAMP_N). Thus, complimentaryramp signals 1108 and 1110 can be made to ramp-up or ramp-down oncommand by selectively opening and closing switch 1504.

The capacitance of capacitor 244 controls the slew time of ramp signalVRAMP (and correspondingly, the slew rates of ramp signals 1108 (VRAM_P)and 1110 (VRAMP_N)). The example slew time depicted in FIG. 15 is onemilliseconds (ms). However a range of slew times, for example, betweenone ms and ten ms, may be used in the present invention. The capacitanceof capacitor 244 is relatively large, for example, in the range of ten(10) nanoFarads. Thus, it is advantageous to have capacitor 244off-chip, so as to correspondingly reduce the size of IC chip 202.

FIG. 16 is a circuit diagram of an example arrangement of a referencesignal generator 1600 of signal generator 242. Reference signalgenerator 1600 includes the following components connected in series andbetween a power supply rail at voltage VDD and ground: a current source1602 and resistors 1604-1610. Reference signal 1112 (VREF_HI) istapped-off between current source 1602 and resistor 1604. Signal 1114(VREF_LO) is tapped-off between resistors 1608 and 1610.

Reference signal generator 1600 also includes a ramp window comparator1618 including first and second comparators 1622 and 1624. First andsecond comparators 1622 and 1624 compare the voltage VRAMP, generated atthe output of OTA 1508 (discussed in connection with FIG. 15), torespective tapped voltages VREF2 and VREF1. Voltages VREF2 and VREF1 aretapped-off between resistors 1604 and 1606, and between 1606 and 1608,respectively. Comparators 1622 and 1624 generate ramp state signal 1106indicating whether VRAMP (and correspondingly, whether signals 1108 and1110) has settled to a static value, that is, finished slewing, afterswitch 1504 has either opened or closed. After controller 233 commandsramp generator 1502 to generate ramp VRAMP, by toggling switch 1504either open or closed, the controller monitors ramp state signal 1106 todetermine when the ramp has finished slewing to its final high or lowfixed voltage.

V. Process Monitor

FIG. 16A is a circuit/block diagram of an example arrangement of processmonitor 108, mentioned above in connection with FIGS. 1 and 2. Thecomponent values and transistor characteristics of a typical IC chipvary from one chip to another. Although ratios between one component andanother match well on-chip, absolute values can vary widely. Processmonitor 108 measures the absolute value of unit sample resistors andtransistors. If a particular resistor or transistor measures high by acertain percentage, then all other resistors and transistors of thattype will also measure high by the same amount. This information can beused to adjust the gain of an amplifier on the chip (for example, any ofamplifiers 204 and 206 on IC chip 202) to a desired value, or todetermine the true, corrected gain of such an amplifier. At any giventime during the operation of amplifier assembly 102, the gain value ofVGA 204 can be read through CI 109. Also, process information aboutprocess variations corresponding to IC chip 202 can be collected fromprocess monitor 108. Based on the gain value, and the processinformation, gain correction factors can be derived, and then applied toany of amplifiers 204 and 206 to compensate for the process variations.

Process monitor 108 includes the following circuits: a bias circuit1650, a sense circuit module 1651, a multiplexer 1652, an amplifier1653, a latched-comparator 1655, and a digital-to-analog converter (DAC)1658.

Bias circuit 1650 produces a set of controlled, predetermined biascurrents 1660. Responsive to bias currents 1660 and a select signal1661, sense circuit module 1651 produces various sensed signals 1663indicative of process parameters of IC chip 202, and provides the sensedsignals to multiplexer 1652. Responsive to a multiplexer select signal1664, multiplexer 1652 provides a selected one of sensed signals 1663 tothe group of circuits 1653, 1655, and 1658. A value of the selectedsensed signal is determined using circuits 1653, 1655 and 1658.

Bias circuit 1650 produces bias currents 1660 based on either CTAT(constant-to-absolute temperature, which remains constant as temperaturechanges) or PTAT (proportional-to-absolute temperature, which increaseslinearly with absolute (Kelvin) temperature). In addition, each currentof bias currents 1660 is based on a particular resistor type, such as anexternal (off-chip, and assumed to have a very low temperaturecoefficient), poly-high (high sheet-rho polysilicon, on-chip) orpoly-low (low sheet-rho polysilicon, on-chip). “Poly” means polysilicon,and “sheet-rho” refers to resistivity per unit area of the IC chip. Eachtype of current is labeled accordingly: “CTAT Ext_R,” “PTAT poly_high,”or “CTAT poly-high.” Other on-chip resistors, such as diffusedresistors, can be used.

FIG. 16B is a circuit diagram of an example arrangement of sense circuitmodule 1651. Also depicted in FIG. 16B is a portion of bias circuit1650. Module 1651 includes a plurality of process monitor or sensecircuits 1670-1680 for monitoring/sensing process-dependent parametersof IC chip or substrate 202. Module 1651 also includes a temperaturemonitor 1682. Switches S1-S5, controlled by signal 1661, applyappropriate ones of bias currents 1660 to various diode-connectedtransistors and grounded resistors of sense circuits 1670-1682. Inresponse, sense circuits 1670-1682 produce sensed signals 1663 havingvalues that provide information about process variations and temperatureof IC chip 202. In the arrangement depicted in FIG. 16B, sensed signals1663 are voltages. In an alternative arrangement, the sensed signals maybe currents. Alternatively, a mix of voltages and currents may begenerated.

Monitor or sense circuit 1670 monitors or senses an NMOS conductivity(k) of IC chip or substrate 202. Sense circuit 1670 produces a sensedsignal nmos_k indicative of the NMOS conductivity.

Sense circuit 1672 monitors a PMOS conductivity of IC chip 202. Sensecircuit 1672 produces a signal pmos_k indicative of the PMOSconductivity.

In sense circuits 1670 and 1672, transistors M1 and M2 are relativelysmall MOS transistors running at high current density, in adiode-connected set-up. This causes their VGS to be much larger than thetransistor threshold voltage (VTH, indicated in labels “vt” and “Vt” inFIG. 16B). Thus, this configuration provides information about thetransconductance parameter, k, of the transistors on the IC chip. SinceVGS is large for these devices, a two-resistor voltage divider is usedto reduce the sense voltage to within the same range of the other sensecircuits.

Sense circuit 1674 monitors an NMOS transistor threshold (vt) of IC chip202. Sense circuit 1674 produces a signal nmos_vt indicative of the NMOSthreshold.

Sense circuit 1676 monitors a PMOS transistor threshold of IC chip 202.Sense circuit 1674 produces a signal pmos_vt indicative of the PMOSthreshold.

In sense circuits 1674 and 1676, transistors M3 and M4 are alsodiode-connected, and are large devices running at low current density.This causes these device to have a VGS near their VTH.

Sense circuit 1678 monitors a resistivity per unit area, poly-lowsheet-rho of IC chip 202. Sense circuit 1678 produces a signal pl_rhoindicative of the resistivity per unit area, poly-low sheet-rho of ICchip 202.

Sense circuit 1680 monitors a resistivity per unit area, poly-highsheet-rho of IC chip 202. Sense circuit 1680 produces a signal ph_rhoindicative of the resistivity per unit area, poly-high sheet-rho of ICchip 202.

In sense circuits 1678 and 1680, two resistors, R5 and R6 are 3.75K ohmpoly-low and poly-high resistors (respectively) that are biased at afixed current (external R, CTAT). The voltage across these resistors isproportional to the sheet-rho of each resistor.

Sense circuit 1682 monitors a temperature of IC chip 202, and produces asignal therm indicative of this temperature. In sense circuit 1682,resistor R7 is used to determine chip temperature. This is done byconnecting either poly-high/CTAT or poly-high/PTAT reference current tothis resistor. Since the reference current is based on a poly-highresistor in both cases, the effects of process variation on thepoly-high resistor is removed, leaving only CTAT vs. PTAT variations(i.e. temperature variations).

Referring again to FIG. 16A, multiplexer 1652, amplifier 1653,comparator 1655 and DAC 1658 cooperate with CI 109 to determine thevalues of the various sensed signals 1663. Multiplexer 1652 selects anyone of sensed signals 1663, responsive to control signal 1664. Amplifier1653 scales the selected sensed signal, and presents the scaled,selected sensed signal to latching comparator 1655. Amplifier 1653 hasan output voltage range between 0.5 and 1.5 volts, approximately, whichis the same as the output range of DAC 1658. Comparator 1655 is in alatch mode when its clock input is a logic “1,” and in a track (ortransparent) mode when its clock input is a logic “0.” At the same time,switches S1-S5 apply bias current(s) to the sense circuit(s) thatproduce(s) the selected sensed signal(s).

IC 109 applies an input vref to DAC 1658. Namely, an input of “000000”produces 0.5 volts at the DAC output, while “111111” produces 1.5 volts.DAC 1658 applies its output to a comparison input of comparator 1655.Comparator 1655 compares the DAC output voltage to the selected scaledsensed signal from the corresponding sense circuit, and producescomparison result output comp_out. CI 109 accesses or reads the value ofcomp_out. Comparator 1655 uses a successive-approximation-register (SAR)algorithm to determine the value, e.g., voltage, of the sensed signal bycomparing the sense signal against the DAC output voltage with 6-bitresolution. The SAR operation is controlled through CI 109 (e.g., byexternal controller 112), which sets the DAC input bits (and hence itsoutput voltage) and clocks the comparator. If the output of thecomparator is a logic “1” after clocking, the sensed signal or voltage(at the scaling amplifier output) was larger than the DAC voltage (andvice-versa).

Multiplexer 1652, amplifier 1653, comparator 1655 and DAC 1658 cooperatewith CI 109 to determine the values of the various sensed signals 1663.Any other circuit may be used to perform this function. In analternative arrangement, sense module 1651 generates sensed signals 1663as digital signals, for example, using an analog-to-digital converter(ADC) on the output of each sense circuit in module 1651, and presentsthe digital signals to CI 109. In this arrangement, circuits 1652, 1653,1655 and 1658 may be omitted.

VI. Method Flow Charts

FIG. 17 is a flowchart of an example method 1700 of controlling gainthat may be performed in amplifier assembly 102. An initial step 1704includes setting a gain of a VGA module, for example, amplifier module104. For example, this step includes setting an initial gain of firststage amplifier 204, e.g., amplifier array 204, in accordance with gaincontrol signals 120, and setting initial gains of second stageamplifiers 206 to programmed gain values. The gains may be set to anydesired gain values. For the purposes of gain changes that may occur insubsequent steps of method 1700, amplifiers 206 can be considered tohave relatively fixed gain set to initial values in step 1704, ascompared to VGA 204, which has a relatively dynamic gain.

A next step 1710 includes amplifying a receive signal to produce anamplified signal. For example, this step includes amplifying receivesignal 114 with amplifier array 204 and second stage amplifier 206(2) toproduce amplified signal 118(2).

A next step 1715 includes detecting a power level of the amplifiedreceive signal generated in step 1710. For example, power detector 216detects the power level/amplitude of signal 118(2), to produce powerlevel signal 230. Power level signal 230 is indicative of the powerlevel of receive signal 114, and amplified signals 210 and 118.

A next step 1720 includes determining whether the power level of theamplified signal (as indicated by the detected amplified signal) isbetween an upper threshold (e.g., threshold 224 a) and a lower threshold(e.g., threshold 226 a) defining an AGC window. Step 1720 includesfurther steps 1722 and 1724. Step 1722 includes comparing the detectedpower level (“DPL”) to the upper threshold, and step 1724 includescomparing the detected power level to the lower threshold. If thedetected power level of the amplified signal is between the upper andlower thresholds, that is, within the AGC window, then flow proceedsback to step 1710 through a delay or wait step 1724 a. Step 1724 acorresponds to a programmable time interval, and may be included in step1724. Steps 1720 and 1724 a may be performed under the control ofcontroller module 220.

If the power level of the amplified signal is not between the upper andlower thresholds, that is, within the AGC window, then flow proceeds toa next step 1725. Step 1725 includes changing the gain of the VGA moduleso as to drive the power level of the amplified signal in a directiontoward a target threshold (e.g., threshold 228 a) intermediate the upperand lower thresholds. Step 1725 includes changing the gain until thepower level of the amplified signal crosses the target threshold. Thegain change is smooth and continuous, in accordance with a rampfunction.

Step 1725 includes further steps 1730 and 1735. Step 1730 includesdecreasing the gain when comparison step 1722 indicates the power levelof the amplified signal is above the upper threshold. Step 1735 includesincreasing the gain when comparison step 1724 indicates the amplifiedsignal power level signal is below the lower threshold. Step 1725 may beperformed under the control of controller module 220. For example,controller 220 generates control signals 120 so as to change the gain ofamplifier array 204, and thus, the gain of amplifier module 104.

After the gain change of step 1725, flow proceeds back to step 1710through a delay or wait step 1737 (similar to wait step 1724 a), and theprocess described above repeats. Step 1737 corresponds to a programmabletime interval, and may be included in both of steps 1730 and 1735.

In an alternative arrangement of method 1700, the gains of bothamplifiers 204 and 206 may be changed in step 1725.

The example gain change scenarios discussed above in connection withFIGS. 10A and 10B may be achieved in accordance with method 1700. Forexample, at sample time 1052 in FIG. 10B (corresponding to step 1722 inmethod 1700), controller module 220 determines or becomes aware that thegain of VGA 204 needs to be reduced. In response, controller module 220reduces the gain of VGA 204 between times 1052 and 1054 (correspondingto step 1730 of method 1700), that is, until the power level signalcrosses target threshold 228 a. Controller module 220 reduced the gainof VGA 204 in accordance with the gain change scenario of FIG. 10A.Then, as depicted in FIG. 10B, controller module 220 waits until a nextsample time (corresponding to wait step 1737 in method 1700), beforeagain polling comparison result signal 232 to test whether another gainchange is required.

Frequent AGC induced gain changes can sometimes cause disruptiveamplitude changes in an AGC controlled output signal. For example, thefrequent AGC induced gain changes can sometimes disrupt the operation ofcircuits or processors, such as demodulators, that process the AGCcontrolled output signal. The present invention advantageously reducesthe frequency of AGC induced gain changes compared to conventional AGCsystems. In the present invention, this advantageous effect arises froma combination of (i) polling comparison result signal 232 at spaced timeintervals (e.g., every t_(sample)) to determine if a gain change isrequired, and (ii) maintaining power level signal 230 at or near targetthreshold 228 a, within an AGC window, and then only changing the gainwhen the power level signal is outside of the AGC window. Either one ofthese techniques taken alone can reduce the frequency of gain changes,but together these techniques even further reduce the frequency of gainchanges.

FIG. 18 is a flow chart expanding on initial gain setting step 1704, asperformed in amplifier assembly 102. Step 1704 includes a further step1802, wherein controller module 220 generates gain control signals 120such that (i) first gain stages among gain stages 302 in VGA 204 are setto their respective maximum gains, and (ii) second gain stages amonggain stages 302 in VGA 204 are set to zero gain. The control signals 120corresponding to the first gain stages of VGA 204 have fixed maximumamplitudes, and the control signals corresponding to the second gainstages of VGA 204 have fixed minimum amplitudes. With reference again toFIG. 2, in step 1802, CI 109 commands controller module 220 to cause thegain of VGA 204 to be set to the desired value.

FIG. 19 is a flow chart expanding on gain change step 1725, as performedin amplifier assembly 102. It is assumed that before step 1725 isexecuted, VGA 204 is configured to have an aggregate gain as a result offirst gain stages thereof being set to their respective maximum gainsand second gain stages thereof being set to zero gain. A step 1905includes sequentially decreasing the gains of one or more of the firstgain stages to zero gain according to a ramp function. A step 1910includes sequentially increasing the gains of one or more of the secondgain stages, corresponding to the one or more of the first gain stages,to their respective maximum gains according to the ramp function. Steps1905 and 1910 may be performed concurrently. Alternatively, steps 1905and 1910 may be performed in series with each other and such that step1905 precedes step 1910, or alternatively, in a reverse order. Method1900 may be performed to either increase the aggregate gain (as would bethe case in step 1730) or decrease the aggregate gain (as would be thecase in step 1735).

FIG. 20 is a flow chart of a low-level example method 2000 expanding ongain change step 1725 and focusing on operations performed by elementsof controller module 220 during the gain change. As mentioned above,step 1725, and thus, method 2000, is invoked when step 1720 indicates anaggregate gain change is required. For example, when controller 233determines, in response to comparison result 232, that an aggregate gainchange is required.

It is assumed that before method 2000 begins, step 1704 set theaggregate gain of VGA 204 to an initial value. In this condition, firstgain stages among gain stages 302 of VGA 204 are set to their maximumgains and second gain stages among gain stages 302 of VGA 204 are set totheir minimum gains, so as to set the aggregate gain of VGA 204 to theinitial value. More specifically, in switch matrix 240:

(i) first switches (among switches 1204) corresponding to the first gainstages are set to their first configurations, and thus, thecorresponding first gain control signals are set to their maximumamplitudes; and

(ii) second switches (among switches 1204) corresponding to the secondgain stages are set to their second configurations, and thus, thecorresponding second gain control signals are set to their minimumamplitudes.

In a first step 2005, controller 233 receives comparison result signal232. In response, controller 233 indicates to switch matrix 240, viasignals 238, the direction of the required gain change, and thus, whichgain stage among the first gain stages is to be turned OFF, and whichgain stage among the second gain stages is to be turned ON. Essentially,in response to comparison result 232, controller 233 selects which gainstages are to be turned OFF and ON to effect the gain change.

In a next step 2010, responsive to control signals 238, switch matrix240 sets:

(i) the switch corresponding to the gain stage to be turned OFF toeither its third or fourth configuration, as appropriate; and

(ii) the switch corresponding to the gain stage to be turned ON toeither its fourth or third configuration, as appropriate.

Essentially, the gain control signals corresponding to these twoswitches are connected to the output of the ramp generator, and are thusare ready to be driven by a ramp signal.

In a next step 2015, controller 233 triggers ramp generator 1502 togenerate the ramp signals 1108 and 1110 according to the ramp function,e.g., by toggling switch 1504. In response to ramp signals 1108 and1110, the gain control signals corresponding to the switches coupled toramp generator 1502 turn OFF and ON their corresponding gain stages.

In a next step 2020, controller 233 monitors ramp state signal 1106 todetermine when ramp signals 1108 and 1110 have settled to their finalfixed values, that is, when the ramp has finished slewing. When thisoccurs, controller 233 sets:

(i) the switch corresponding to the gain stage just turned OFF to eitherits first or second configuration, as appropriate; and

(ii) the switch corresponding to the gain stage just turned ON to eitherits second or first configuration, as appropriate.

Essentially, the gain control signals corresponding to these twoswitches are now connected to the output of the reference signalgenerator, and are thus held at respective fixed amplitudes.

In a next step 2025, controller 233 determines if a further gain changeis required. That is, controller 233 determines if power level signal230 has still not crossed target threshold 238 a. The time delayinvolved in performing this step contributes to the pause betweensuccessive incremental gain changes discussed above in connection withFIGS. 10B and 10A.

If step 2025 indicates no further gain change is required, then method2000 stops. On the other hand, if step 2025 indicates a further gainchange is required, then flow proceeds back to step 2005, and the gainchange process repeats. In this manner, method 2000 changes gain onestep at a time, that is, in each iteration through steps 2005-2025,until the power level signal 230 is at or near target threshold 238 a.

VII. Example System—CATV Set-Top Box

FIG. 21 is a flow chart of another method of controlling the gain of VGA204, in amplifier assembly 102. VGA 204 includes gain stages 302connected in parallel with each other and that collectively establish anaggregate gain of the VGA. The VGA receives gain control signals 120,each for controlling a gain of a corresponding one of parallel gainstages 302.

In a first step 2105, VGA 204 amplifies receive signal 114 in accordancewith the aggregate gain to produce an amplified output signal 210.

In a next step 2110, power detector 216 produces detected power 230indicative of a power of amplified signal 210 produced by the VGA. In anext step 2115, comparator module 218 produces comparison result signal232 indicative of a relative relationship between the detected powersignal and thresholds 224 a-228 a.

In a next step 2120, ramp generator 1502 generates ramp signals 1108 and1110 on command.

In a next step 2125, reference signal generator 1600 generates referencesignals 1112 and 1114 having fixed amplitudes.

In a next step 2130, controller module 220 generates gain controlsignals 120 responsive to comparison result signal 232, referencesignals 1112 and 1114, and ramp signals 1108 and 1110 (when the rampsignals are generated). Controller module 220 generates gain controlsignals 120 such that amplified output signal 210 maintains asubstantially constant amplitude as the power of receive signal 114varies over time.

FIG. 22 is a block diagram of an example system 2200, such as a CATVset-top box, in which amplifier assembly 102 may be used. Amplifierassembly 102 provides amplified signals 118(1)-118(n) to correspondingindividual tuners 2204(1)-2204(2). Each signal 118(i) includes aplurality of CATV channels, as mentioned above. Each tuner 2204(i)selects a subset only, for example, one, of the many frequency channelspresented in corresponding signal 118(i). Each tuner 2204(i) produces asignal 2206(i) including the selected channel only.

Tuners 2204(1)-2204(n) provide signals 2206(1)-2206(n) to correspondingones of demodulators 2210(1)-2210(n), as depicted in FIG. 22. Eachdemodulator 2210(i) demodulates the selected channel presented in itscorresponding signal 2206(i). Amplifier assembly 102, tuners 2204 anddemodulators 2210 may be all controlled by a controller, such ascontroller 112 discussed in connection with FIG. 2 (but not shown inFIG. 22).

Due to the AGC operation of amplifier assembly 102, as described above,each tuner-demodulator pair (2204(i)-2210(i)) advantageously receives acorresponding signal 118(i) having (i) the plurality of frequencychannels present in signal 114, and (ii) a substantially constantaggregate power level, under fluctuating amplitude conditions of inputsignal 114. The smooth and continuous gain change operation of amplifierassembly 102 advantageously avoids abrupt, disruptive power leveldiscontinuities in signals 118, and thus in signals 2206. As a result,the gain changes in amplifier assembly 102 are transparent todemodulators 2210. For example, demodulators 2210 can maintain asuccessful “lock” on, or tracking of, signals 2206 during gain changesin amplifier assembly 102 that compensate for substantial fluctuationsin the power of input signal 114. Another advantage of the amplifierassembly is that AGC induced gain changes are less frequent than inconventional systems, for the reasons mentioned above in connection withFIG. 17.

Another advantage is that the AGC operation of amplifier assembly 102 isautonomous, that is, the AGC in amplifier assembly operates without theneed of any feedback signal, such as a receive power indicator, fromeither tuners 2204 or demodulators 2210. Another advantage is that thepower levels of signals 118 may be controlled individually using onlyone component in the system, namely, amplifier assembly 102. Thus, eachsignal 118(i) delivers the required power to each tuner-demodulatorpair, and this required power may differ substantially between thetuner-demodulator pairs.

VIII. Conclusion

Further benefits of the invention include, at least, and by way ofexample and not by limitation, the following:

High bandwidth (i.e. good frequency performance).

Low distortion, especially for large composite channel signals found incable TV. This is due to connecting the amplifier outputs to VDD viaexternal inductors or ferrites and due to using a resistors andattenuators in the front end of the amplifier assembly (e.g., in theVGA).

Only enough gain reduction is used at the first amplifier stage of theamplifier assembly to insure the largest input signal condition can bemet. This allows use of fewer gain stages in the VGA. Gain reduction isachieved through turning OFF gain stages.

Low noise figure.

Good input match (even at different gain settings).

Minimized distortion as the gain is changed. This is accomplished byfully turning OFF or ON all unused gain stages.

Power consumption is lowered as sequential gain stages of the VGA areturned OFF.

Noise figure degradation vs. gain reduction is less than 1:1 for lowergain settings, since attenuation comes at the output after the first 18dB (done by turning OFF gain stages). This is important when the inputsignal level is high.

Increased AGC control range: More than 30 dB at 860 MHz and more than 35dB at lower frequencies.

At a minimum, application is to cable modems, set-top box receivers andanalog TV tuners.

Gain in one arrangement is controlled by a combination of selectingamplifiers connected to a tapped resistor ladder and by turning ON andOFF amplifier forming part of gain stages.

IC chip has been designed to use low-cost digital CMOS process. Howeverthis is not a limitation as other semiconductor processes could be usedincluding bipolar (including SiGe), BiCMOS or Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)MESFET.

While various embodiments of the present invention have been describedabove, it should be understood that they have been presented by way ofexample, and not limitation. It will be apparent to persons skilled inthe relevant art that various changes in form and detail can be madetherein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.

The present invention has been described above with the aid of circuitmodules, functional building blocks, and method steps illustrating theperformance of specified functions and relationships thereof. Theboundaries of these circuit modules, functional building blocks andmethod steps have been arbitrarily defined herein for the convenience ofthe description. Alternate boundaries can be defined so long as thespecified functions and relationships thereof are appropriatelyperformed. Any such alternate boundaries are thus within the scope andspirit of the claimed invention. One skilled in the art will recognizethat these circuit modules, functional building blocks and modules canbe implemented by discrete components including digital and/or analogcircuits, application specific integrated circuits, processors executingappropriate software, hardware, firmware and the like or any combinationthereof. Thus, the breadth and scope of the present invention should notbe limited by any of the above-described exemplary embodiments, butshould be defined only in accordance with the following claims and theirequivalents.

1. A method of amplification, comprising: (a) amplifying an input signalusing a plurality of parallel gain stages to produce an output signal, again of the amplification being a sum of gains of the plurality of gainstages; and (b) changing the gain of the amplification so as to drive apower of the output signal between a high threshold and a low thresholdwhen the power is not between the high and low thresholds.